How to Buy the Best Organic Foods

Americans spent close to $28 billion in 2008 on organic edibles, up from $1 billion in 1990, according to The Organic Trade Association. And organic foods remain an area of growth even with the rising cost of grocery items and tougher economic times. If you’re fueling these double-digit sales, you likely already have your reasons for buying organic. Even so, recent changes to America’s food buying habits―the rise of the local-food movement, increased awareness about foods’ carbon footprint (the amount of greenhouse gasses released when producing and transporting goods)―may leave you wondering where organic foods fit into a better-for-the-environment equation. If you’re not an organic shopper, perhaps you have questions about whether or not these products are worth their premium price tag. Here you’ll learn the lowdown.

Organic basics

• History: The organic movement, which gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, was a reaction to growing awareness about the unintended environmental effects of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can spread far from the fields where they are applied. Today organic farmers advocate maintaining a sustainable environment by using natural principles to maximize crop and livestock yield instead of turning to artificial and chemical methods.

• USDA certification: In 2002, the U.S. Department of Agriculture implemented uniform standards for American organic farmers and manufacturers. Organic foods must be grown or produced without chemical pesticides or fertilizers, and, in livestock, without the use of antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic foods cannot be genetically modified, irradiated, or cloned. Further guidelines govern specific foods. For instance, organic chickens must be raised with outdoor access.

• Growing market: In 1990, the United States had less than 1 million acres of organic farmland. By 2002, that number had doubled, and it doubled again in 2005, the most recent year for which USDA data is available. As organic farming has spread, it has adopted some of the principles that guide conventional farming. Today some organic farms are large-scale operations that manage thousands of acres. As farming has grown, so have market share, crop yields, and distribution channels. Organic-themed grocery stores, such as Whole Foods, have expanded around the country, and even mainstream food purveyors, such as Safeway and Wal-Mart, have developed organic brands. Organic food can now be found in every corner of the grocery store.

• Growing complexity: Organic certification does not cover many issues that have emerged as consumers have become more knowledgeable. Today organic food may be locally grown or it may be grown in a foreign country and shipped to the United States, resulting in a larger carbon footprint. Or it may be produced under less-than-ideal conditions for livestock or laborers. In response, some farmers are shifting to what is called “beyond organic” to practice sustainable farming, build a local clientele for foods raised in season, and provide a living wage to workers. Also, some farmers may follow organic principles yet forgo USDA certification. That’s one reason why you sometimes find uncertified organic goods at your local grocery or farmers’ market.

Nutrition and health

Farmers, food producers, and scientists debate whether organically grown and produced fruits, vegetables, meats, and milks are more nutritious than conventional ones.

The Organic Center (TOC), a nonprofit research organization in Foster, Rhode Island, recently issued a review of 97 studies on the subject to draw the conclusion that organic foods, on average, offer a 25 percent higher nutrient level over conventional ones. The premium may be an extra measure of a nutrient like vitamin C or higher levels of compounds like antioxidants, which are produced by plants to act as natural pesticides. The TOC is a pro-organic organization, so it’s not surprising they found a nutritional edge. However, their review is complemented by emerging research from independent scientists. For example, University of California at Davis researchers have found higher levels of nutrients in organic tomatoes, kiwifruit, corn, and strawberries grown side-by-side with conventional versions.

Because this research is preliminary, most -major public health organizations like the American Dietetic Association and the Mayo Clinic hold that an organic label is not an assurance that a food is nutritionally superior. What’s more, organic sweets and snack foods don’t warrant a nutritional halo just because they’re organic. In excess, fat, sugar, and calories can have adverse health effects, whether or not the food that contains them is organic.

Related posts:

1. French Cooking Lessons- Week 12
2. French Cooking Lessons- Week 11
3. French Cooking Lessons- Week 9

Vocabulary

La nourriture

Whether you’re traveling in Europe or just going out to a local French restaurant, food is one of the necessities of life, so here are some key French words and phrases related to food.

la nourriture food
avoir faim to be hungry
manger to eat

le repas meal
le petit-déjeuner breakfast

le déjeuner lunch
le dîner dinner
le goûter snack
déjeuner to have breakfast or lunch
dîner to have dinner

le hors d’œuvre, l’entrée*     appetizer
la soupe, le potage soup
le plat principal main course
la salade salad
le dessert dessert

la cuisine kitchen, cooking
la salle à manger dining room
le restaurant restaurant

*In American English, “entrée” refers to the main course, but in French it only indicates an appetizer.

Here are the French words for some staples, seasonings, and other miscellaneous foods.

la confiture jam

le croissant croissant

la farine flour

les frites (US) fries, (UK) chips

l’huile d’olive (f) olive oil

la mayonnaise mayonnaise

la moutarde mustard

un œuf, des œufs egg, eggs

le pain bread

le pain grillé toast

les pâtes pasta

le poivre pepper

le riz rice

la sauce sauce, dressing, gravy

le sel salt

le sucre sugar

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1. French Cooking Lessons- Week 11
2. French Cooking Lessons- Week 9
3. French Cooking Lessons-Week 13

Frugal

French Cooking Tricks

Everyone appreciates a frugal recipe, but can it be cheap and delicious? It absolutely can! Try these easy tricks for cooking healthy, recession-proof French food that suits your budget and bring a touch of the French bistro to your home kitchen.

Make the most of seasonings. These can be as simple as salt and pepper, or as complex as your own special blend of herbs. The key to flavorful cooking is to be fearless when using them. It’s true that seasoning can’t be removed once it has been added to a dish, and that rationale makes people timid for fear of a super-salty, overly seasoned dish. The way around this problem is to add half the amount you anticipate needing, taste the dish, and then season again, accordingly.

An excellent, yet little-known, tip for stretching your food budget is to cut Allium vegetables (onions, shallots, garlic, chives) in smaller pieces. These pungent foods contain sulfoxides, the compound that makes your eyes water when you slice into an onion. As the knife cuts through the onion, it crushes the sulfur compounds and releases the familiar scent. The same goes for flavor; the more you cut an Allium vegetable, the more flavor it releases.

Studies have shown that a “poor man’s” diet, full of beans and grain, leads to a healthier, longer life. Beans have a silky, almost creamy texture and the capacity to take on the flavors of any recipe. What’s more, they can stretch a recipe by replacing some or most of the meat, and while providing an excellent source of protein.

Roasting vegetables gives them an extra kick of flavor for the cost of heating the oven. Get comfortable with roasting with this simple tutorial: Turn your oven up to 425F, line a baking sheet with parchment paper or non-stick foil, and roast your favorite vegetables (with a drizzle of oil) for 10 to 40 minutes, depending on your special mix. Check and stir them every 5 minutes to evenly distribute the oil. The vegetables are done when they turn fork tender and golden brown. The fantastic payoff is deep caramel notes and a wonderful texture in otherwise bland ingredients; this method provides a stunning transformation for a frugal recipe.

Nothing is new under the sun, and using grains to stretch a food budget is certainly not an innovative trend. Although it may be old-fashioned, it is a very healthy way to cut costs in the kitchen. Simply add a cup of cooked rice or barley to any soup or stew, or arrange a saucy meat dish atop a bed of couscous, rice, or pasta for a filling meal.

Related posts:

1. French Cooking Lessons- Week 9
2. French Cooking Lessons-Week 10
3. French Cooking Lessons-Week 13

All about Chocolate this week!

Occasionally you should indulge yourself with the rich, satisfying taste of chocolate. It melts so perfectly in your mouth, and warms your soul. Chocolate gives you a mild feeling of euphoria, similar to when you fall in love, because it contains PEA a substance which releases endorphins in your brain.

Chocolate is a favorite for kids and adults alike. Chocolate bars, chocolate fudge, chocolate cake, chocolate chip cookies, chocolate ice cream, chocolate milk, chocolate cereal, hot chocolate, chocolate sauce… There is something special about this substance — so special that the average person in the United States eats 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of chocolate every year!

Have you ever wondered where chocolate comes from? In this article, we’ll enter the amazing world of chocolate so you can understand exactly what you’re eating!

The Cocoa Bean
Chocolate starts with a tree called the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao). This tree grows in equatorial regions, especially in places such as South America, Africa and Indonesia.

The cacao tree produces a fruit about the size of a small pineapple. Inside the fruit are the tree’s seeds, also known as cocoa beans.

The beans are fermented for about a week, dried in the sun and then shipped to the chocolate maker. In the next sections, we’ll look at how the chocolate maker turns these raw beans into luscious chocolate.­

There are three basic things that must be done by the chocolate maker to make a chocolate bar:

* Adding ingredients – The chocolate that we eat contains sugar, other flavors (like vanilla) and often milk (in milk chocolate). The chocolate maker adds these ingredients according to his or her secret recipe.

* Conching – A special machine is used to massage the chocolate in order to blend the ingredients together and smooth it out. Conching can take anywhere from two to six days.

* Tempering – Tempering is a carefully controlled heating process. According to this Chocolate FAQ, tempering is “a process where the chocolate is slowly heated, then slowly cooled, allowing the cocoa butter molecules to solidify in an orderly fashion.” Without tempering, the chocolate does not harden properly or the cocoa butter separates out (as cream separates from milk).

Types of Chocolate:

Baking Chocolate
Pure cocoa liquor with nothing added

Cocoa Powder
Cocoa bean solids; cocoa liquor pressed to remove the cocoa butter

Semisweet Chocolate
Pure cocoa liquor with extra cocoa butter and some sugar

Milk Chocolate
Pure cocoa liquor with extra cocoa butter, sugar and milk solids; more milk than chocolate liquor

White Chocolate
Cocoa butter with sugar and milk; no cocoa bean solids

This week:

Take the Chocolate Challenge

Chocolate

Mousse Recipe

Ingredients:

• 2 cups heavy cream
• 4 egg yolks
• 3 tablespoons granulated sugar
• 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
• 7 oz bittersweet chocolate, melted and kept lukewarm

Preparation:

Heat 2/3 cup of cream in small saucepan until it just begins to steam. In a separate bowl, whisk together the egg yolks and sugar, and then add ½ hot cream, whisking constantly, until the mixture is thoroughly combined. Add the warm egg-cream blend back into the hot cream in the saucepan and cook over low heat, stirring constantly, until the mixture reaches 165 F degrees on a digital candy thermometer. Remove from the heat and stir in the vanilla extract and melted chocolate. Chill the chocolate custard thoroughly.

Beat remaining 1 1/3 cups of cream in a separate bowl until stiff peaks form. Thoroughly stir ½ cup of the whipped cream into the chilled chocolate custard, and then gently fold in the remaining cream. The chocolate mousse is ready when the chocolate custard is thoroughly incorporated into the whipped cream, and no marbling shows. Serve chilled.

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1. French Cooking Lessons- Week 12
2. French Cooking Lessons-Week 13
3. French Cooking Lessons- Week 9

Basic Knife Skills

Choosing a chef’s knife that’s right for you and suits your needs is one of the most important decisions you will make when equipping your kitchen. Your chef’s knife is the number one tool that you will constantly and consistently use. My advise to you is not to skimp and try and get off cheap.

You really don’t need any number of those crazy tools and gadgets that you see displayed down at your local kitchen store. Avocado slicers, tomato dicer; what’s this, a lettuce knife? Please!

I like having gizmo’s and gadgets just as much as the next guy, but when it really comes down to it, you really only need two knives: a 10” chef’s knife and a 6-7” utility knife.

What To Look For in A Knife

When I go out to buy a new knife, no matter if it’s a chef’s knife, utility knife, or just a knife for fun, (just because you only need two knives doesn’t mean that you have to only have two knives), these are the three main things that I take into consideration; steel, handle and weighting.

The Steel

The first thing you need to address is what kind of steel you want. This is a commonly overlooked aspect when buying a knife but one that could and should play an important role in your decisions once you understand the two major differences.

Although there are many types of knives manufactured by many different companies using numerous kinds of steel alloys, your decision will pretty much come down to two choices: German Steel or Japanese Steel.

German knives are characterized by traditionally having a little bit of a thicker blade than that of Japanese knives. This makes them a little sturdier and less prone to break off a tip or misshape when dropped (which can and will happen).
German knives are also traditionally sharpened to about a 22° angle, making them sharp but also study.

Pros:

• Sturdy and strong.
• Hold their edge for a good amount of time
• Easy to sharpen

Cons:

• Thicker blade makes it more arduous when making more delicate slices such as cutting sashimi for sushi or fine julienne and Brunoise of vegetables.

Japanese knives on the other hand usually have a more delicate composition with a thinner blade that is usually sharpened to an 18-16° angle. This extreme edge makes them scary sharp, but they don’t stay sharp quite as long. They’re also a little bit more difficult to sharpen.

Pros:

• Sharpened to an extreme angle which makes them razor sharp.
• Great for more delicate cuts such as sushi and fine vegetable work.

Cons:

• Tend to be a little more difficult to sharpen then German knives.
• Because they are sharpened to such an extreme angle, their edge is a little more fragile and won’t hold for quite as long. (There are some exceptions to this rule).

The Handle

When choosing your knife, you want to take into careful consideration the type of handle the knife has. It should comfortably fit the type and size of your hand. If you have a smaller hand, you’re going to want to buy a knife with a thinner handle. Conversely, if you have a larger hand, you are going to need to purchase a knife with a little bit of a wider handle. Someone with a larger hand who uses a thin handled knife will develop pressure points in the palm of their hand. This will tense up their grip, leading to poor fluidity of movement and inaccurate cuts.

The key to having good knife skills is a knife that you can hold with a relaxed and comfortable grip for an extended period of time.

Weighting

Finally, the third and final aspect you need to take into consideration when purchasing a knife is the overall weighting. But remember, don’t confuse weighting with weight. Too often I hear people bragging about how nice and light their chef’s knife is. “Hey, check this knife out, it’s light as a feather!”

Who cares? It’s not like your curling a 50-pound dumb bell every time you pick up a chef’s knife. What really matters is how that weight is distributed throughout that knife, or the balance of the knife.

For longer knives, such as the 10” chef’s knife or a long slicer, the balance point should be right where the blade connects to the handle, meaning that the blade and the handle are of about equal weight.

The shorter the blade gets (such as a three inch pairing knife) the more handle heavy the knife will be. This will give you greater control over the confined and intricate movements you will inherently be making with a shorter blade.

Click on Basic Knife Cuts

This weeks assignment:

Leave a comment and tell me your favorite knife and why you use it!

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1. French Cooking Lessons- Week 11
2. French Cooking Lessons-Week 10
3. French Cooking Lessons- Week 12

Baking Terms

Allumette: Any of various puff pastry items made in thin sticks or strips (French word for “matchstick”).

Almond Paste; A mixture of finely ground almonds and sugar.

Angel Food Cake: A type of cake made of meringue (egg whites and sugar) and flour.

Angel Food Method: A cake mixing method involving folding a mixture of flour and sugar into a meringue.

Baba: A type of yeast bread or cake that is soaked in syrup.

Babka: A type of sweet yeast bread or coffee cake.

Baked Alaska: A dessert consisting of ice cream on a sponge-cake base, covered with meringue and browned in the oven.

Baking Ammonia: A leavening ingredient that releases ammonia gas and carbon dioxide.

Baklava: A Greek or Middle Eastern dessert made of nuts and phyllo dough and soaked with syrup.

Batter: A semi liquid mixture containing flour or other starch, used for the production of such products as cakes and breads and for coating products to be deep-fried.

Bavarian Cream: A light, cold dessert made of gelatin, whipped cream, and custard sauce or fruit.

Beignet Souffl� (ben yay soo flay): A type of fritter made with �clair paste, which puffs up greatly when fried.

Blanc Mange (bla mahnge): (1) An English pudding made of milk, sugar, and cornstarch. (2) A French dessert made of milk, cream, almonds, and gelatin.

Bloom: A whitish coating on chocolate, caused by separated cocoa butter.

Blown Sugar: Pulled sugar that is made into thin-walled, hollow shapes by being blown up like a balloon.

Bombe: A type of frozen dessert made in a dome-shaped mold.

Boston Cream Pie: A sponge cake or other yellow cake filled with pastry cream and topped with chocolate fondant or confectioners’ sugar.

Bran; The hard outer covering of kernels of wheat and other grains.

Bran Flour: Flour to which bran flakes have been added.

Bread Flour: Strong flour, such as patent flour, used for breads.

Brioche: Rich yeast dough containing large amounts of eggs and butter; or a product made from this dough.

Brown Sugar: Regular granulated sucrose containing various impurities that give it a distinctive flavor.

Buttercream: An icing made of butter and/or shortening blended with confectioners’ sugar or sugar syrup and sometimes other ingredients.

Cake Flour: A fine, white flour made from soft wheat.

Caramelization: The browning of sugars caused by heat.

Cast Sugar: Sugar that is boiled to the hard crack stage and then poured into molds to harden.

Celsius Scale: The metric system of temperature measurement, with 0� C at the freezing point of water and 100� C at the boiling point of water.

Centi-; Prefix in the metric system meaning “one-hundredth.”

Challah: A rich egg bread, often made as a braided loaf.

Charlotte: (1) A cold dessert made of Bavarian cream or other cream in a special mold, usually lined with ladyfingers or other sponge products. (2) A hot dessert made of cooked fruit and baked in a special mold lined with strips of bread.

Chemical Leavener: A leavener such as baking soda, baking powder, or baking ammonia, which releases gases produced by chemical reactions

Chiffon Cake: A light cake made by the chiffon method.

Chiffon Method: A cake mixing method involving the folding of whipped egg whites into a batter made of flour, egg yolks, and oil.

Chiffon Pie: A pie with a light, fluffy filling containing egg whites and, usually, gelatin.

Chocolate Liquor: Unsweetened chocolate, consisting of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

Christmas Pudding: A dark, heavy, steamed pudding made of dried and candied fruits, spices, beef suet, and crumbs.

Clear Flour: A tan-colored wheat flour made from the outer portion of the endosperm.

Coagulation: The process by which proteins become firm, usually when heated.

Cobbler: A fruit dessert similar to a pie but without a bottom crust.

Cocoa: The dry powder that remains after cocoa butter is pressed out of chocolate liquor.

Cocoa Butter: A white or yellowish fat found in natural chocolate.

Compote: Fruit cooked in a sugar syrup.

Confectioners’ Sugar: Sucrose that is ground to a fine powder and mixed with a little cornstarch to prevent caking.

Coulis (koo lee): A fruit or vegetable puree, used as a sauce.

Couverture: Natural, sweet chocolate containing no added fats other than natural cocoa butter; used for dipping, molding, coating, and similar purposes.

Creaming: The process of beating fat and sugar together to blend them uniformly and to incorporate air.

Creaming Method: A mixing method that begins with the blending of fat and sugar; used for cakes, cookies, and similar items.

Creme Anglaise (krem awng glezz): A light vanilla-flavored custard sauce made of milk, sugar, and egg yolks.

Creme Brulee: A rich custard with a brittle top crust of caramelized sugar. French name means “burnt cream.”

Creme Caramel: A custard baked in a mold lined with caramelized sugar, then unmolded.

Crepe (krep): A very thin French pancake, often served rolled around a filling.

Crepes Suzette: French pancakes served in a sweet sauce flavored with orange.

Croissant (krwah sawn): A flaky, buttery yeast roll shaped like a crescent and made from a rolled-in dough.

Custard: A liquid that is thickened or set by the coagulation of egg protein.

Deci”: Prefix in the metric system meaning “one-tenth.”

Dessert Syrup; A flavored sugar syrup used to flavor and moisten cakes and other desserts.

Devil’s-Food Cake: A chocolate cake made with a high percentage of baking soda, which gives the cake a reddish color.

Docking: Piercing or perforating pastry dough before baking in order to allow steam to escape and to avoid blistering.

Drained Weight: The weight of solid canned fruit after draining off the juice.

Dredge: To sprinkle thoroughly with sugar or another dry powder.

Drop Batter; A batter that is too thick to pour but will drop from a spoon in lumps.

Dutch Process Cocoa: Cocoa that has been processed with an alkali to reduce its acidity.

Eclair Paste: A paste or dough made of boiling water or milk, butter, flour, and eggs; used to make eclairs, cream puffs, and similar products.

Emulsion: A uniform mixture of two or more unmixable substances.

Endosperm: The starchy inner portion of grain kernels.

Extraction; The portion of the grain kernel that is separated into a particular grade of flour. Usually expressed as a percentage.

Fermentation: The process by which yeast changes carbohydrates into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.

Foaming: The process of whipping eggs, with or without sugar, to incorporate air.

Fondant: A type of icing made of boiled sugar syrup that is agitated so that it crystallizes into a mass of extremely small white crystals.

Frangipane: A type of almond-flavored cream.

French Pastry: A variety of small fancy cakes and other pastries, usually in single-portion sizes.

Fritter; A deep-fried item made of or coated with a batter or dough.

Ganache (gah nahsh): A rich cream made of sweet chocolate and heavy cream.

Gateau (gah toe): French word for “cake.”

Gaufre (go fr’): French word for “waffle.”

Gelatinization: The process by which starch granules absorb water and swell in size.

Gelato: Italian ice cream

Genoise (zhen wahz): A sponge cake made with a batter containing melted butter.

Germ The plant embryo portion of a grain kernel.

Glace (glah say): (1) Glazed; coated with icing. (2) Frozen.

Glaze: (1) A shiny coating, such as a syrup, applied to a food. (2) To make a food shiny or glossy by coating it with a glaze or by browning it under a broiler or in a hot oven.

Gliadin): A protein in wheat flour that combines with another protein, glutenin, to form gluten.

Gluten: An elastic substance, formed from proteins present in wheat flours, that gives structure and strength to baked goods.

Glutenin: See Gliadin.

Gram: The basic unit of weight in the metric system; equal to about one-thirtieth of an ounce.

Granite (grab nee tay): A coarse, crystalline frozen dessert made of water, sugar, and fruit juice or another flavoring.

Gum Paste: A type of sugar paste or pastillage made with vegetable gum.

Hard Sauce: A flavored mixture of confectioners’ sugar and butter; often served with steamed puddings.

Hard Wheat: Wheat high in protein.

Hearth Bread: A bread that is baked directly on the bottom of the oven, not in a pan.

Heavy Pack: A type of canned fruit or vegetable with very little added water or juice.

High-Ratio: (1) Term referring to cakes and cake formulas mixed by a special method and containing more sugar than flour. (2) The mixing method used for these cakes. (3) Term referring to certain specially formulated ingredients used in these cakes, such as shortening.

High-Ratio Method: See Two-Stage Method.

Homogenized Milk: Milk that has been processed so that the cream does not separate out.

Hydrogenation: A process that converts liquid oils to solid fats (shortenings) by chemically bonding hydrogen to the fat molecules.

Icing Comb: A plastic triangle with toothed or serrated edges; used for texturing icings.

Inversion: A chemical process in which a double sugar splits into two simple sugars.

Invert Sugar: A mixture of two simple sugars, dextrose and levulose, resulting from the breakdown of sucrose.

Italian Meringue; A meringue made by whipping a boiling syrup into egg whites.

Japonaise (zhah po net): A baked meringue flavored with nuts.

Kernel Paste: A nut paste, similar to almond paste, made of apricot kernels and sugar.

Kilo”; Prefix in the metric system meaning “one thousand.”

Kirsch: A clear alcoholic beverage distilled from cherries.

Kugelhopf: A type of rich, sweet bread or coffee cake usually made in a tube-type pan.

Ladyfinger: A small, dry, finger-shaped sponge cake or cookie.

Lean Dough: A dough that is low in fat and sugar.

Leavening: The production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and texture.

Linzertorte: A tart made of raspberry jam and a short dough containing nuts and spices.

Liter: The basic unit of volume in the metric system; equal to slightly more than a quart.

Macaroon; A cookie made of eggs (usually whites) and almond paste or coconut.

Malt Syrup: A type of syrup containing maltose sugar, extracted from sprouted barley.

Marble: To partly mix two colors of cake batter or icing so that the colors are in decorative swirls.

Marron: French word for “chestnut.”

Marshmallow: A light confection, icing, or filling made of meringue and gelatin (or other stabilizers).

Marzipan: A paste or confection made of almonds and sugar and often used for decorative work.

Meal: Coarsely ground grain.

Melba Sauce: A sweet sauce made of pureed raspberries and sometimes red currants.

Meringue: A thick, white foam made of whipped egg whites and sugar.

Meringue Chantilly (shown tee yee): Baked meringue filled with whipped cream.

Meringue Glace: Baked meringue filled with ice cream.

Meter: The basic unit of length in the metric system; slightly longer than one yard.

Milli-: Prefix in the metric system meaning “one-thousandth.”

Modeling Chocolate: A thick paste made of chocolate and glucose, which can be molded by hand into decorative shapes.

Molasses: A heavy brown syrup made from sugar cane.

Monosaccharide: A simple or single sugar such as glucose and fructose.

Mousse: A soft or creamy dessert that is made light by the addition of whipped cream, egg whites, or both.

Napoleon: A dessert made of layers of puff pastry filled with pastry cream.

Net Weight: The weight of the total contents of a can or package.

No-Time Dough: A bread dough made with a large quantity of yeast and given no fermentation time except for a short rest after mixing.

Nougat: A mixture of caramelized sugar and almonds or other nuts, used in decorative work and as a confection and flavoring.

Old Dough: A dough that is overfermented.

One-Stage Method: A cookie mixing method in which all ingredients are added to the bowl at once.

Othello: A small (single-portion size), spherical sponge cake filled with cream and iced with fondant.

Oven Spring; The rapid rise of yeast goods in the oven due to the production and expansion of trapped gases caused by the oven heat.

Pain d�Epice (pan day peece): A type of gingerbread. French name means “spice bread.”

Palmier (palm yay): A small pastry or petit four sec made of rolled, sugared puff pastry cut into slices and baked.

Parfait; (1) A type of sundae served in a tall, thin glass. (2) A still-frozen dessert made of egg yolks, syrup, and heavy cream.

Paris-Brest: A dessert consisting of a ring of baked �clair paste filled with cream.

Pasteurized: Heat-treated to kill bacteria that might cause disease or spoilage.

Pastillage: A sugar paste used for decorative work, which becomes very hard when dry.

Pastry Cream: A thick custard sauce containing eggs and starch.

Pastry Flour: A weak flour used for pastries and cookies.

Pate a Choux (pot ah shoo): Eclair paste.

Pate Feuillete (pot foo va fay): French name for puff pastry.

Patent flour: A fine grade of wheat flour milled from the inner portions of the kernel.

Petit Four: A delicate cake or pastry small enough to be eaten in one or two bites.

Petit Four Glace: An iced or cream-filled petit four.

Petit Four Sec: An uniced or unfilled petit four (“sec” means “dry”), such as a small butter cookie or palmier.

Phyllo (fee lo): A paper-thin dough or pastry used to make strudels and various Middle Eastern and Greek desserts.

Piping Jelly: A transparent, sweet jelly used for decorating cakes.

Pithiviers (fee tee vyay): A cake made of puff pastry filled with almond cream.

Praline: A confection or flavoring made of nuts and caramelized sugar.

Profiterole: A small puff made of �clair paste. Often filled with ice cream and served with chocolate sauce.

Puff Pastry: A very light, flaky pastry made from a rolled-in dough and leavened by steam.

Pulled Sugar: Sugar that is boiled to the hard-crack stage, allowed to harden slightly, then pulled or stretched until it develops a pearly sheen.

Pullman Loaf: A long, rectangular loaf of bread.

Pumpernickel Flour: A coarse, flaky meal made from whole rye grains.

Punching: A method of expelling gases from fermented dough.

Puree: A food made into a smooth pulp, usually by being ground or forced through a sieve.

Retarding: Refrigerating a yeast dough to slow the fermentation.

Rich Dough: A dough high in fat, sugar, and/or eggs.

Rolled-in Dough: Dough in which a fat has been incorporated in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure.

Rounding: A method of molding a piece of dough into a round ball with a smooth surface or skin.

Royal Icing: A form of icing made of confectioners’ sugar and egg whites; used for decorating.

Rye Blend: A mixture of rye flour and hard wheat flour.

Sabayon: A foamy dessert or sauce made of egg yolks whipped with wine or liqueur.

Sacristain (sak ree stan): A small pastry made of twisted strip of puff paste coated with nuts and sugar.

Saint-Honore: (1) A dessert made of a ring of cream puffs set on a short dough base and filled with a type of pastry cream. (2) The cream used to fill this dessert, made of pastry cream and whipped egg whites.

Savarin; A type of yeast bread or cake that is soaked in syrup.

Scaling: Weighing, usually of ingredients or of dough’s or batters.

Scone: A type of biscuit or biscuit like bread.

Scone Flour; A mixture of flour and baking powder that is used when very small quantities of baking powder are needed.

Short; Having a high fat content, which makes the product (such as a cookie or pastry) very crumbly and tender.

Shortbread: A crisp cookie made of butter, sugar, and flour.

Shortening: (1) Any fat used in baking to tenderize the product by shortening gluten strands. (2) A white, tasteless, solid fat that has been formulated for baking or deep-frying.

Simple Syrup: A syrup consisting of sucrose and water in varying proportions.

Soft Wheat: Wheat low in protein.

Sorbet (sor bay): French word for “sherbet,”

Sorbetto; Italian word for “sherbet.”

Souffle: (1) A baked dish containing whipped egg whites, which cause the dish to rise during baking. (2) A still-frozen dessert made in a souffle dish so that it resembles a baked souffle.

Sourdough: (1) A yeast-type dough made with a sponge or starter that has fermented so long that it has become very sour or acidic. (2) A bread made with such a dough.

Sponge: A batter or dough of yeast, flour, and water that is allowed to ferment and is then mixed with more flour and other ingredients to make a bread dough.

Sponge Cake: A type of cake made by whipping eggs and sugar to a foam, then folding in flour.

Sponge Method: A cake mixing method based on whipped eggs and sugar.

Spun Sugar: Boiled sugar made into long, thin threads by dipping wires into the sugar syrup and waving them so that the sugar falls off in fine streams.

Staling: The change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to the loss of moisture by the starch granules.

Stollen: A type of sweet yeast bread with fruit.

Straight Flour: Flour made from the entire wheat kernel minus the bran and germ.

Streusel (stray sel): A crumbly topping for baked goods, consisting of fat, sugar, and flour rubbed together.

Strong Flour: Flour with a high protein content.

Strudel: (1) A type of dough that is stretched until paper-thin. (2) A baked item consisting of a filling rolled up in a sheet of strudel dough or phyllo dough.

Sucrose: The chemical name for regular granulated sugar and confectioners’ sugar.

Swiss Roll: A thin sponge cake layer spread with a filling and rolled up.

Syrup Pack: A type of canned fruit containing sugar syrup.

Tempering: The process of melting and cooling chocolate to specific temperatures in order to prepare it for dipping, coating, or molding.

Torte: German word for various types of cakes, usually layer cakes.

Tulipe: A thin, crisp cookie molded into a cup shape.

Tunneling: A condition of muffin products characterized by large, elongated holes; caused by overmixing.

Turntable: A pedestal with a flat, rotating top, used for holding cakes while they are being decorated.

Two-Stage Method; A cake mixing method, beginning with the blending of flour and high-ratio shortening, followed by the addition of liquids. Also called the high-ratio method.

Vacherin (vah sher ran): A crisp meringue shell filled with cream, fruits, or other items.

Wash: (1) A liquid brushed onto the surface of a product, usually before baking. (2) To apply such a liquid.

Water Pack: A type of canned fruit or vegetable containing the water used to process the item.

Weak Flour: Flour with a low protein content.

Whole Wheat Flour: Flour made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ.

Young Dough: dough that is under fermented.

Zabaglione: An Italian dessert or sauce made of whipped eggs yolks and Marsala wine.

Zest: The colored outer portion of the peel of citrus fruits.

These terms you must know in order to get familiar with French baking.

If you pick up a slice of bread and examine it closely, you can see that it is full of air holes. This makes it spongy and soft. You will also see that bread is moist. If you let a slice of bread sit out on the counter for a day, you will realize just how moist fresh bread is! Bakers use two simple facts of life to create soft, spongy, moist bread:

• First, they use the fact that yeast (a single-cell fungi) will eat sugar, and from the sugar create alcohol and carbon dioxide gas as waste products. The carbon dioxide gas created by yeast is what gives bread its airy texture, and the alcohol, which burns off during baking, leaves behind an important component of bread’s flavor.
• Second, wheat flour, if mixed with water and kneaded, becomes very elastic. The flour-and-water mixture in bread becomes stretchy like a balloon because of a protein in wheat known as gluten. Gluten gives bread dough the ability to capture the carbon dioxide produced by yeast in tiny flour balloons.

You can perform a few experiments to better understand how bread works.

This weeks assignment:

Follow this recipe and leave a comment and tell me how it came out and if you thought this was a challenge.

French Bread

Related posts:

1. French Cooking Lessons-Week 10
2. French Onion Pissaladière – French Onion Tart
3. French Cooking Lessons- Week 12

Week 6 will teach you everything you need to know about poultry!

When in doubt about what to serve for dinner, there is always chicken. Many special occasions are enhanced by a nice, juicy turkey on the table. Poultry is a staple food in many homes throughout the country, but if not cooked properly harmful bacteria can make you sick. Cook poultry safely and eat without worrying about illness.

Here are some good tips!

Choose poultry at the supermarket with a Grade A symbol on the package in order to get the highest quality product. All poultry sold in the United States is inspected, but Grade A poultry is guaranteed to be plump, meaty and free from any bodily bruises, cuts or broken bones.

Step 2

Put poultry in the refrigerator or freezer as soon as you bring it home from the store. Bacteria often lives on raw poultry and multiplies quickly at temperatures above 40 degrees F.

Step 3

Cook poultry until it reaches an internal temperature of at least 165 degrees F. A 4-oz. boneless breast will take about 25 minutes in a 350 degree F oven.

Step 4

Check the internal temperature of cooking poultry with a food thermometer before serving. Make sure to put the thermometer right into the center of the thigh or into the thickest part of the breast.

Step 5

Serve leftovers within 3 to 4 days of cooking. Leftover poultry must be stored in a refrigerator and reheated to 165 degrees F when serving.

Julia Child paved the way for teaching people to cook like the french with chicken. Poultry is a large part of french cookery too.

Cooking Chicken, the French Way

Lets take a look at how chicken is cooked in french techniques.

Poaching (pocher)

When chicken recipes call for poaching, you’re sure to end up with a wonderful moist bird. Chicken that might be a bit tough or dry benefits greatly from poaching. Poaching is also an excellent trick for those maintaining a healthy diet, because it adds no fat to the dish.

To poach chicken, simply simmer it in water until thoroughly cooked. Instead of plain water (which adds no flavor), you may also use water with added vegetables, milk (including milk with added herbs), wine, beer, stock, tomato juice, or vermouth.

Do not overcook or boil the chicken, because this makes the poultry tough and chewy.

French-Frying (frire à la friteuse)

Chicken that’s cooked in a deep pan of fat or oil is called “French-fried.” Peanut oil mixed with a couple of drops of olive oil is an excellent choice for chicken recipes using this method, but often vegetable oil is used.

Uncoated chicken should be fried at 350° until it just begins to brown. Allow it to cool, then fry again at about 390°. This makes the chicken crisp and golden brown. Coated chicken should only be fried once, at 390°.

Braising (braiser)

Braised chicken is cooked in red or white wine or stock made from meat, poultry, or vegetables. This French cooking method is an excellent way to soften tough poultry.

To the liquid, you may add such things as carrots, tomatoes, celery, onions, garlic, mushrooms, shallots, parsley…virtually any vegetable you like. The leftover liquid may then be reduced and made into a tasty sauce.

Baking/Roasting (faire cuire au four/rôtir)

Both these methods use dry heat to cook the chicken. The oven must be preheated to 450°. After placing the chicken in the oven, lower the heat gradually, according to the cooking recipe. This ensures the chicken doesn’t dry out. When roasting, don’t cover the chicken; instead, baste it with oil or butter throughout the cooking time.

Broiling/Grilling (faire rôtir/ faire griller)

Chicken that is either broiler or grilled is first covered with oil, then placed in a pre-heated oven or on a hot grill to cook. To avoid overcooking, larger pieces of chicken should be placed further away from the heat.

Sautéing (faire sauter)

Thin cuts of chicken (such as chicken breasts) are suitable for sautéing. Sautéd chicken is cooked in barely enough oil or fat to prevent it from sticking to the pan. Both the pan and the oil should be preheated.

To add extra flavor (and a side dish for the poultry) you may first add herbs, chopped or minced garlic, small pieces of onion, and other vegetables to the pan. Soften these, then add the chicken.

Quiz:

Name 3 methods of cooking Chicken, the french way?

What temp should chicken be cooked to?

How long can you store leftovers in the refrigerator?

Assignment:

Please submit a simple chicken recipe that you like to cook! All recipes will be published on the site. Tell me why you like the recipe too!

Related posts:

1. Featured! The Petite French School- Week 1
2. French Cooking Lessons- Week 11
3. French Cooking Lessons- Week 12

Now that we have covered meats, it is time to address fish and how this type food is used in French cooking.

Guidelines for Cooking Fish

Measure fish (dressed or stuffed, fillets or steaks) at thickest part.
Allow 5-7 minutes cooking time per cm of thickness (10 minutes per inch) for fresh fish.
Allow 10-12 minutes cooking time per cm of thickness (20 minutes per inch) for frozen fish.
Fish is ready when fish is opaque and flakes easily.

Dry Heat Cooking Methods

Baking
Baking is the process of cooking fish at certain temperatures in an oven.
Place fish in a greased baking pan.
Brush with melted butter and season with salt and pepper.
Bake in center of preheated oven at 230 degrees celsius (450 degrees fahrenheit).
Follow cooking guidelines above.
-Use fresh or thawed fish
-Flavor with basting sauce, lemon juice or dry white wine
-Stuff dressed fish no more than 2/3 full
-Serve as is or with a sauce

Barbecuing
Barbecuing is the process of cooking fish at high temperatures over coals or an open flame.
Marinate fish.
Place in oiled wire basket on oiled grill.
Baste with marinade during cooking.
Cook 7-10 cm (3-4 inches) above coals or flame, turning halfway through cooking time.
Follow cooking guidelines above.
-Use fresh or thawed fish
-Place charcoal/propane barbecue in a well ventilated location. Adjust air trap.
-Try this method for kababs or for foil-wrapped fish with vegetables.

Blackening
Blackening is the process of cooking fish by coating in spice and cooking at extremely high heat. The process actually creates a barrier between the food and the heat, allowing blackening, not burning, to occur.
To blacken properly, a cast iron skillet or grill plate is heated over very high temperature until just short of a white spot or ash appearing. (The skillet or grill must be extremely dry before it is heated.) The fish to be grilled should be at room temperature. Dip fish into melted, clarified butter, then sprinkle with spice (notes: for more flavor, roll fish into spice mix before cooking and the butter can be omitted to reduce calories). Place the fish onto the pan, cooking for 1-2 minutes on each side. Blackening adds a distinctive flavor to fish while creating a savoury, moisture-retaining barrier around the outside. The result? Warm, smoky grilled flavors and succulent textures. The high heat required by blackening means that you will need a skillet or pan made of cast iron. There is really no substitute. Also, blackening will create smoke… (and how!). Work in a well-ventilated area – outdoors using a gas grill will work, as will a commercial kitchen environment.

Broiling
Broiling is the process of cooking fish under an open flame or electric element at high temperatures.
Brush fish with melted butter and season OR marinate.
Place in single layer on a well greased broiler pan.
Broil 7-10 cm (3-4 inches) from the preheated unit. Baste during cooking.
Follow cooking guidelines above.
-Use fresh or thawed fish
-Turn thick pieces halfway through cooking time
-Serve as is or with a sauce

Bronzing
Bronzing is a name that we apply to a technique similar to “blackening”, but at a lower temperature than is required for blackening. As with blackening, bronzing is cooking fish by coating the fish in spice and cooking it quickly on a pan or grill. Bronzing spices generally contain more herbs than blackening spices. The spice and the cooking process create a crispy, flavorful barrier around the fish being bronzed. To “bronze” properly, a stainless steel pan is heated over high temperature. (The skillet or grill should be dry before it is heated.) The food to be grilled should be at room temperature. Sprinkle the food with bronzing spice (notes: for more flavour, roll food into spice mix before cooking). Place the food onto the pan, drizzle with a small amount of melted, clarified butter. Cook for 1-2 minutes. Turn with a spatula and drizzle again with a small amount of butter. Cook for another 1-2 minutes and remove from the pan. Bronzing adds a distinctive flavour to fish while creating a savoury, moisture-retaining barrier around the outside. By creating a crisp, savoury coating of spice, the full flavour of the fish being bronzed develops inside – creating a delicious balance between the discrete combinations of flavour and texture. The heat required by bronzing means that you will need a good quality stainless steel pan which won’t warp when heated. A slim stainless or Teflon spatula is also helpful to remove the food from the pan without tearing the outer, spiced layer of the food away.

Microwave Baking
Microwave baking is the process of cooking fish using microwaves that generate heat internally instead of externally. Therefore only the fish becomes hot. Any heat noticed inside the oven or from the baking dishes comes from the fish as it becomes hot. Thus time, not temperature and heat, is the variable in microwave cooking.
Melt butter at High Power.
Mix with chopped parsley, green onion and lemon juice.
Remove half of mixture and reserve.
Arrange 500 gm of fish in dish; season to taste.
Top with remaining mixture.
Cover; microwave at High Power 6-8 minutes, rotating dish during cooking.
Let stand covered for 2 minutes.
-Use fresh or thawed fish

Oven Steaming
Oven steaming is the process of cooking fish wrapped in aluminum foil in an oven with a cooking liquid or sauce.
Place on greased heavy-duty aluminum foil.
Season, flavor with lemon juice, butter and parsley.
Wrap tightly.
Place on cookie sheet.
Bake in center of preheated oven at 230 degrees celsius (450 degrees fahrenheit).
Follow cooking guidelines above.
-Use fresh or frozen fish
-Flavor with wine, herbs, juice or vegetables
-Use cooking liquid for sauce

Poaching in Court-Bouillon
Poaching is the process of cooking fish in boiling water.
Prepare a court-bouillon.
Wrap fish in cheese cloth.
Place in rapidly boiling liquid, cover pan, return to boil, then reduce to simmer.
Follow cooking guidelines above.
-Use fresh or frozen fish
-Drain court-bouillon for reuse, refrigerate for up to 1 week or keep frozen for up to 2 months

Poaching in Water or Milk
Cook fish directly in salted boiling water OR wrap tightly in greased heavy-duty aluminum foil with chopped onion, celery, salt and pepper; place in rapidly boiling water.
Cover pan, return to boil, then reduce heat to simmer.
To poach smoked fillets, cover with cold milk flavored with butter, bay leaf, pepper; simmer.
Follow cooking guidelines above.
-Use fresh or frozen fish
-Use 2ml of salt per L of water (1/4 tsp per quart) for fish
-Use poaching liquid for white, cheese or egg sauce

Pan-Frying
Frying is the process of cooking fish in an open pan or pot using butter, lard or oil.
Season each portion of fish.
Cover lightly with flour.
dip in liquid (milk or beaten egg).
Coat with flour or crumbs.
Heat butter or cooking fat.
Fry on both sides>
Follow cooking guidelines above.
Drain on absorbent paper.
-Use fresh or thawed fish
-Try this method for fish cakes or small fish such as smelt and rainbow trout

Deep Frying
Preheat oil to 190 degrees celsius (375 degrees fahrenheit).
Sprinkle fish with salt.
coat with batter OR cover lightly with flour, dip in milk or beaten egg, then coat with flour or crumbs.
Fry a few pieces at a time.
Follow cooking guidelines above.
Drain on absorbent paper.
-Use fresh or thawed fish
-Be sure the fat returns to 190 degrees celsius (375 degrees fahrenheit) before frying additional pieces
-Serve with lemon wedges or sauce

Brine Solutions for Freezing
1 liter cold water (4 cups)- 50 ml (3 Tbsp) pickling salt. OR
1 liter cold water (4 cups)- 40 ml (2.5 Tbsp) pickling salt.

Stir well to dissolve salt. Use as directed for freezing fish

Court-Bouillon for Poaching
125 ml (1/2 cup) vinegar or dry white wine.
15 ml (1 Tbsp) salt.
1 celery stalk.
50 ml (1/4 cup) sliced onion.
50 ml (1/4 cup) sliced carrot.
1 ml (1/4 tsp) thyme.
2 ml (1/2 tsp) peppercorn.
1 Bay leaf.
15 ml (1 Tbsp) chopped parsley.
1 L (4 cups) boiling water.

Combine all ingredients and pour over fish fillets. Cover and boil gently 10 minutes. Use to poach fish. Strain, then use as a base for soups and sauces or freeze for reuse in poaching. Makes about 1 liter (4 cups).

Crispy Batter for Deep-Frying
250 ml (1 cup) all-purpose flour.
10 ml (2 tsp) baking powder.
6 ml (1.25 tsp) salt.
10 ml (2 tsp) sugar.
15 ml (1 Tbsp) vegetable oil.
250 ml (1 cup) water.

Mix and sift dry ingredients. Add oil to water. Make a well in the dry ingredients and slowly pour in liquid, stirring until well-blended. Makes enough for 1 kg. (2.2 pounds) fish.

Fish Marinade
2 cups white wine
2 tablespoons lemon juice
2 teaspoons salt
2 tablespoons prepared brown mustard
2 teaspoons salt
1/2 teaspoon cayenne pepper

In a bowl combine white wine, lemon juice, salt, prepared brown mustard, salt, and cayenne pepper. Marinade the fish 6-12 hours. Use the marinade as a basting sauce while cooking. Serving Size: 6

Chilled Sauces for Fish

Cocktail Sauce:
125 ml (1/2 cup) chili sauce.
100 ml (1/3 cup) ketchup.
100 ml (1/3 cup) prepared horseradish.
7 ml (1.5 tsp) Worcestershire sauce

Mix. Serve well-chilled.

Flavored Mayonnaise:
Add color and flavor with herbs, tomato paste, saffron, turmeric or curry powder. Season with garlic, ginger, shallots, lemon juice, and/or cream.

Tartar Sauce:
250 ml (1 cup) mayonnaise
15 ml (1Tbsp) green relish
15 ml (1 Tbsp) chopped parsley

Mix. Serve well-chilled.

Cooked Sauces for Fish

Lemon Chive Sauce:
50 ml (3 Tbsp) butter
15 ml (1 Tbsp) chopped chives
10 ml (2 tsp) lemon juice
2 ml (1/2 tsp) grated lemon rind

Heat through. Season with salt and pepper to taste.

Lemon Dill Sauce for Fish
2 teaspoons yogurt
1 teaspoon cornstarch
1/4 teaspoon dillweed
1/8 teaspoon pepper
2 tablespoons lemon juice

In a large bowl, blend together yogurt with cornstarch, dillweed, and pepper until smooth. To cook with fish: Brush lemon juice over the fish and broil until almost cooked. Turn the fish and brush evenly with the yogurt/dill sauce. Continue broiling until fish flakes easily. Serving Size: 4

Tomato Sauce:
25 ml (2 Tbsp) chopped onion
25 ml (1 Tbsp) butter
25 ml (1 Tbsp) flour
5 ml (1 tsp) sugar
500 ml (19 oz) canned tomatoes, chopped
1 Bay leaf

Saute onion in butter. Thicken with flour. Add sugar, tomato and bay leaf. Cook until thick. Season with salt and pepper to taste.

Related posts:

1. The Petite French School- Lesson 4
2. The Petite French School- Lesson 2
3. The Petite French School- Lesson 3

Now that we have covered sauces the next thing I would like to talk about is Meat. Meats are used in a variety of French cooking. Here is meat 101.

Beef Quality Grades

A quality grade is a composite evaluation of factors that affect palatability of meat (tenderness, juiciness, and flavor). These factors include carcass maturity, firmness, texture, and color of lean, and the amount and distribution of marbling within the lean. Beef carcass quality grading is based on (1) degree of marbling and (2) degree of maturity.
Marbling

Marbling (intramuscular fat) is the intermingling or dispersion of fat within the lean. Graders evaluate the amount and distribution of marbling in the ribeye muscle at the cut surface after the carcass has been ribbed between the 12th and 13th ribs. Degree of marbling is the primary determination of quality grade.
Degrees of Marbling

Each degree of marbling is divided into 100 subunits. In general, however, marbling scores are discussed in tenths within each degree of marbling (e.g.,Slight 90, Small 00, Small 10).

It is probably not a surprise to most of you that the texture of meat changes as it is cooked. But what is really going on inside?

Raw Meat

Raw meat has a chewy, slippery texture. All of its water is trapped inside the muscle and connective tissue. You may have noticed that pounding a piece of meat doesn’t release much juice.

Early Cooking – Rare

Around 120° F (50° C), the protein myosin begins to coagulate. When this happens, water is squeezed around the groups of myosin and eventually forced out of the cell. This action not only makes the meat juicier but also gives it a firmer texture.

Middle Cooking – Medium

At 140° F (60° C), the protein coagulates even more and cells form into more solid groups. As this happens, the meat becomes firmer and larger pockets of liquid make it juicier. Once the meat rises past 140° F (60° C) up to 150° F (65° C), however, the collagen denatures in the connective tissue and puts more pressure on the water. When this happens, the meat shrinks and releases much of its juice. It becomes tougher and drier.

Late Cooking – Well Done

As the meat continues to cook, it becomes dry and stiff. Another change takes place, however, when the meat slowly reaches the temperature of 160° F (70° C). When slowly raised to this temperature, the collagen changes into soft gelatin and the meat releases its tight texture. While the actual muscle fibers are still firm, the gelatin allows it to break apart easily, making it feel tender. You usually achieve this result with barbecues, stews or braises.

Now that I know how meat reacts to cooking, I just have to figure out how to cook it to the right temperature!

Temps:

Beef
Rare
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): n/a
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 115 degrees

Medium-Rare
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 145 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 120 degrees to 130 degrees

Medium
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 160 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 140 degrees

Medium-Well
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): n/a
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 150 degrees

Well-Done
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 170 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 155 degrees to 160 degrees

Ground Beef
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 160 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 160 degrees

Pork
Medium
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 160 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 145 degrees

Well-Done
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 170 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 160 degrees

Ground Pork
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 160 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 160 degrees

Lamb
Rare
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): n/a
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 110 degrees to 115 degrees

Medium-Rare
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 145 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 130 degrees

Medium
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 160 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 140 degrees

Medium-Well
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): n/a
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 145 degrees to 150 degrees

Well-Done
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 160 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 150 degrees to 155 degrees

Ground Lamb
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 170 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 160 degrees

Poultry
Whole Bird, Thighs, Legs, Wings, Ground Poultry
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 165 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 165 degrees

Boneless Chicken Breasts
USDA Guidelines (Before Resting): 165 degrees
Professional Kitchens (Before Resting): 160 degrees

Quiz:

What temp is Med Rare?

What temp should you cook pork to?

What temp is Well Done?

What temp should you cook Chicken to?

Assignment:

Choose a cut of meat and try cooking it. Take the temp every 3 min and log how the temp fluctuates to see what happens during the cooking process. Leave a comment on this post to let me know what you found when cooking various types of meat.

Related posts:

1. The Petite French School- Lesson 6
2. The Petite French School- Lesson 2
3. The Petite French School- Lesson 3